After him only four emperors were crowned by a pope or his delegate. Hussites within his kingdom, Sigismund was instrumental in resolving the Zeno granted Odoacer the title Patrician. After his father's defeat outside Antioch, he tried to escape east to Parthia, but was captured and killed before he could achieve this. The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the Western Roman Empire. Nor did it fall in 1453 when the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople. Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia the Elder: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus. The so-called Domus Aurea, meaning golden house in Latin, was constructed atop the burnt remains of Rome after the Great Fire of Rome (64). His appointment would prove a deciding moment in the division of the Empire. Otto I did not claim the title of Roman emperor, but his descendants did. The emperors of this period were Nerva (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each one adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. His reign was also notable for the Antonine Constitution (Latin: Constitutio Antoniniana), also known as the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all freemen throughout the Roman Empire. Julian had received his baptism as a Christian years before, but no longer considered himself one. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons. [6][7][8][9] Civil war engulfed the Roman state in the mid 1st century BC, first between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and finally between Octavian and Mark Antony. She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54. When Marcus died in 180 the throne passed to his son Commodus, who had been elevated to the rank of co-emperor in 177. Hadrian's army crushed the Bar Kokhba revolt, a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135). (Germany did not become united until 1870.) Over the next two decades the imperial structure fell apart in Italy. His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetriano to proclaim himself Caesar in opposition to Magnentius. This constituted what is called the Tetrarchy (in Greek: "leadership of four") by modern scholars, as each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected rather than dynastic, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, it is noted that Commodus at first ruled the empire well. He believed himself a god and decided to build an opulent palace for himself. In April 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the Quadi, a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native province of Pannonia. Unfortunately, Sigismund (1368-1437) was another weak king. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule—the former his father shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presented difficulty even to obtain—were unheard of. From Christmas Day in ad 800 until August 6, 1806, there existed in Europe a peculiar political institution called the Holy Roman Empire. According to Herodian this cost him the respect of his troops, who may have felt they should be punishing the tribes who were intruding on Rome's territory.[75]. He had the Electorate designate his son, Wenzeslaus (1361-1419), as his successor before his death in 1378. 296–98. Two years later he assigned the former Byzantine territory around Ravenna to the pope. Tiberius was the son of Livia, the third wife of Octavian, by her first marriage to Tiberius Nero. It was the Investiture Controversy that brought matters to a head. He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate, he reportedly committed suicide in 68. Meanwhile, Charles IV concerned himself with acquiring lands and securing the imperial title for his family. Severus continued official persecution of Christians and Jews, as they were the only two groups who would not assimilate their beliefs to the official syncretistic creed. The book has since been hailed as Marcus' great contribution to philosophy. Both Augusti readied their troops for another Roman Civil War, but the timely demise of Constantius on 3 November 361 prevented this war from occurring.

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